Chapter 2: EVOLUTION OF HUMAN RACE:

EVOLUTION OF HUMAN RACE:

As per the Vedas, time is divided into four ages. Krita(Sata) Yuga, Treta Yuga, Dwapar Yuga and Kali Yuga-collectively forming one 'Maha Yuga'. Seventy one 'Maha Yugas' form a 'Manvantara', a period of time over which a ‘Manu’ resides. In each cycle this ‘Manu’ is the first man and also the first king and the lawgiver. Every 'Manavantara' has its own set of Indra, Gods and seven Sages. Fourteen 'Manavantara' create a Kalpa(aeon), after which the creation comes to a close, which is called ‘Pralaya’. After that the creation starts all over again in an endless cycle of evolutions and dissolutions. The tradition relate that the present ‘Kalpa' is called ‘Varaha’. Out of the fourteen 'Manavantaras' of this ‘Kalpa’, six have passed. The current Manavantara is called ‘Vaivasvata’ after the ‘Manu’, who preside over it. It is to Vaivasvata Manu that the royal genealogies trace their origin. It was in the Caksusa Manavantara, which immediately preceded the present Manavantara , that King Prithu , the great grandson of Caksusa Manu , leveled the earth , built cities and villages and developed agriculture , trade , pasture and cattle breeding. This cycle ended after only eight or more generations with the great flood.

The great flood at the end of the Caksusa Manavantara wipes away all life forms. Only Vaivasvata Manu is saved by Lord Vishnu in the avatar of a fish(Matsya) to re-populate the earth in the next cycle. All royal lines in our cycle are traced from Vaivasvata Manu’s sons and his only daughter Ila. This daughter produced by means of a ritual, later becomes his wife.

In the Padma Purana, Shrishti Khand, Page-7, the calculation for the evolution of life on the earth is as follows:-

The period of Satyuga is          - 4800 Divya years X 360 = 17,28,000 years
The period of Tretayuga is       - 3600 Divya years X 360 = 12,96,000 years
The period of Dwaparyuga is   - 2400 Divya years X 360 =  8,64,000 years
The period of Kaliyuga is         - 1200 Divya years X 360 =  4,32,000 years

So in one Mahayuga(All four yugas +) there will be         = 43,20,000 years

Calculation of the present Samvat year-

Total number of years in six Manavantara     -  1,84,03,20,000 years

27 Chaturyugi in the seventh Manavantara    -     11,66,40,000 years

3 Yugas in the 28th Chaturyugi                        -          38,88,000 years

The passed years in the Kali yuga                    -                 5,121 years

                                                                               -----------------------------

The present Samvat year                                   -  1,96,08,53,121th year

                                                                                -----------------------------

Now we look into the global thought, then as per "Outline of History" by H. G. Wells 2.2, how old is the world- "Estimates of the age of the oldest rocks by geologists and astronomers starting from different stand points have varied between 160,000,000 to 250,000,000 years."

Again, in "The evolution of the earth" by Prof. H. F. Osborn, he developed his own evolutionary theory of human origin, called the "Dawn Man Theory". His theory was founded on the discovery of Piltdown Man (Eonthropus), which was dated to the late (Upper) Pliocene. Eonthropus or "Dawn Man", Osborn maintained sprang from a common ancestor with the ape during the Oligocene period which he believed developed entirely during the Miocene (16 million years ago) . Therefore, Osborn argued that all apes (Simia, following the pre-Darwinian classification of Linnaeus) had evolved entirely parallel to the ancestors of man(Homo).

The story of incarnation of Vishnu as fish (Matsyavatar) is seen in the Bible figuratively. In the order of the generation of Adam, the first creation of God, Seth, Enos, Kainan, Mahalil, Jared, Enoch, Methuselah, Lamech, and Noah were born. When Noah was five hundred years old, he begot Sham, Ham, and Japheth. As per Bible, there was a great flood during the time of Noah. God said to him: The end of all flesh is come before one; for the earth is filled with violence through them, and behold. I will destroy them with the earth. Make thee an ark of gopher wood; rooms shault thou make in the ark and shalt paint it within and without with pitch. And this is the fashion which thou shalt make it of. The length of the ark should be three hundred cubits. A window shalt thou make to the ark and in a cubit shall thou finish it above and the door of the ark shalt thou set in the side there of, with lower second and third stories shalt thou make it. And behold, I ever I, do bring a flood of water up on the earth.

The ancient period of human technological development along with creation and use of rudimentary chipped stone tools is called the Paleolithic Period. It was also characterized by the produce of small sculptures, clay figurines of animals and paintings on cave walls. Researchers excavating a dry river bed near Kenya's Lake Turkana discovered primitive stone tools embedded in rocks dating to 3.3 million years ago. That is around middle of the Pliocene Epoch (some 5.3 million to 2.5 million years ago). Those tools predate the oldest confirmed specimen of Homo by almost One Million years. The earliest period of human history is known as the Stone Age. The Stone Age era is broken down into two parts: The Paleolithic Period or old stone age from about 2.5 million years ago to about 10,000 years ago, and Neolithic Period or new stone age from about 10,000 years to about 5,000 years ago.

Paleolithic humans were generally nomadic and were hunter-gatherers. They usually lived in sparsely wooded areas and dispersed through areas of high primary production, while avoiding dense forest cover. Around 60,000 years ago they spread rapidly from the African continent to the frost-free zones of Asia and Europe. By the end of the ice age, i.e. around 12,000 years ago, humans had colonized nearly all the ice-free parts of the earth. Again by 10,000 B.C.E., the Neolithic Period marked the system of agriculture, cultivation of cereal crop, and animal domestication. The Yangtze valley started growing rice by at least 8,000 B.C.E., In the Indus valley crops were cultivated and cattle were domesticated around 7,000 B.C.E. The Yellow river valley in China also cultivated millet and other cereal crops by same around 7,000 B.C.E. The development of cities first took place in lower Mesopotamia (3000 B.C.E.), Egyptian civilization along the Nile river (3000 B.C.E.), Harappan civilization along the Indus river (2500 B.C.E.), and the Chinese civilization along the Yellow and Yangtze rivers (2200 B.C.E.).  

The Mleiha Archaeological Center, Sharjah, U.A.E., is constructed around a 4500 year old Umm Al Nar era tomb. However, archaeological evidence has been found around Mleiha dating as far back as the Paleolithic period, about 1,30,000 years ago. This is not long after the first waves of modern humans began migrating north from African continent. Recently in February, 2021, the researchers at Mleiha happened upon a pottery jar containing 409 silver coins. Out of these 387 coins were single sided mold coins, while 22 were double-sided mold coins. According to a report in Archaeology News Network the earliest coins depict the head of Hercules represented by Alexander the great and the God Zeus sitting on his throne. Further more, "Alexander" is engraved in Greek script, but on the later coins it is replaced with the name "Abel" written in Aramaic.        

Now we will have to take a brief look on the evolution of human race as per our mythology and belief: It is mentioned in Chapter-I of the Vishnu Purana that Brahma created Daksha out of his thumb. Daksha had a daughter Aditi, who was the mother of Sun. From the Sun was born Manu. Since the Sun-god was Manu’s father, his lineage came to be known as the ‘Suryavansha’. Manu had many sons, of whom 50 perished quarreling  with each other, the remaining ten were-(1) Ikshwakku, (2) Nriga, (3) Dhristha, (4) Saryati, (5) Narishyanta, (6) Pransu, (7) Nabhaga, (8) Navnedistha, (9) Karusha, and (10)Prishadhra.


The Brahma Purana(Chapter 7&8) mentions that Ikshwakku fathered 101 children of whom most illustrious were Vikukshi, Nimi and Danda. Nimi was the ruler of Mithila region, which spread from the foothills of Himalaya upto the river Ganga. Vikukshi, after eating hare-meat meant for a rite, was called Sasada. Sasada had 500 sons, who guarded northern region led by Shakuni and 58 sons out of them who guarded southern region led by Visati.

The Brahma Purana mentions that Kakustha was the son of Sasada, whose son was Anranya. From Anranya, the lineage descent until Raghu. Aja was the son of Raghu and father of Dasharatha. Rama was the son of Dasharatha. They ruled from Ayodhya.

As on date, apart from the Bhimbetka caves, the oldest neolithic site (7000 B.C.E.) was found in 1979 at Mehrgarh in Dhadar district of Pakistan, 10 kms south of Bolan Pass. A copper bead found in a grave dating to 5000 B.C.E. is one of the first metal objects found in this region. Kindly note that as per Ramayana, when Hanumana met Sita in Ashok Vatika, she gave him a ring to be given to Rama as a memory.

Roughly around 2500 B.C.E. two of these neolithic sites were destroyed by fire and new cities were developed on the ashes of the old. The first one Mohenjo-Daro (Mound of the dead), and the second Harappa were built. At the zenith, the Indus Valley Civilisation incorporated an area larger than the north Ezypt, streching almost 1000 kms north to south. After 1900 B.C.E., this civilisation began to decline due to the drying up of the main river Saraswati (Ghaggar-Hakra), which finally disappeared.

By about 1700 B.C.E. the Indus Valley Civilisation divided into regional cultures called post Harappan culture. The Aryans started migrating to the alluvial plains of river Ganga and Jamuna. During the Vedic age (around 700 B.C.E.), we have the description of sixteen Mahajanapadas in all the Vedic, Buddhist and Jain relics.

Around 600 B.C.E., several philosophers around the world advanced ideas that changed views of life and religion on the earth-

Zoroaster                 - 628-551 B.C.E. in Iran

Gautam Buddha       -623-543 B.C.E. in India

Mahaveera               -599-527 B.C.E. in India

Pythagorus               -570-500 B.C.E. in Greece

Confucius & Laozi    -551-479 B.C.E. in China

The Indus valley civilization(Mohanjodaro and Harappa), which flourished in the north-western part of the Indian sub-continent from 3300 to 1300 B.C.E. was the first major civilization in south Asia. This civilization collapsed at the start of the second millennium B.C.E. and was later followed by the 'Vedic' civilization, which extended over much of the Indo-Gangetic plain and which witnessed the rise of major polities known as the 'Mahajanpadas'. From 600 B.C.E. onwards in 'Magadha Mahajanpada', Mahavira and Gautam Buddha propogated their 'Shramanic' philosophies.


The 'Vajjians' included nine confederated clans of whom the Licchavis, the Videhans, the Jnatrikas and the Vajjis were the most important. Mithila(modern Janakpur) was the capital of 'Videha'. The last 'Janak' of Mithila, Kirti Janak(King Kalara), who is said to have perished along with  his kingdom on account of his attempt on a Brahmin maiden’s molestation. On the reins of his kingdom, arose the republics of the 'Licchavis' and 'Videhans' and seven other small confederations. The 'Licchavis' were a very independent people. The mother of Mahavira was a Licchavi's princess-Trishala, who was the sister of Maharaj Chetaka, who later on became the president of the 'Vajji Mahajanpada'. The 'Licchavis' were followers of Buddha, and they also ruled Nepal at the start of middle ages. 'Licchavis' are represented as 'Vratya Kshatriyas' in 'Manu Smriti'.

Sixth century B.C.E. is very important in political, socio-religious and economical history of ancient India. During this period the second phase of urbanization leading to the emergence of the cities like, Kausambi, Varanasi, Pataliputra, Sravasti, and Vaishali. The areas of eastern U.P., Bihar, and Nepal Tarai became the center of this transformation. Matrimonial relations in the sixth century B.C.E. played an important role in the growth of religions and rise of political power. The mother of Mahavira, Trisala was the sister of Maharaja Chetaka, the president of the Vajji Mahajanpada. The king Bimbisar of Magadha was married to Chellana, the daughter of Maharaja Chetaka. Three other daughters of  him were married in different royal families. Prabhavati was married to king Udayana of Sindhu-Sauvira, Padmavati was married to king Dadhivahana of Champa, and Mrigavati was married to king Pradyota of Avanti. Thus Vardhamana(Mahavira) was well connected from maternal side.The mother of Lord Buddha, Mayadevi, was the princess of the Koliyas. In this way Buddha was connected with contemporary ruling clan. It is evident that this relationship with Sakyas and Koliyas proved fruitful in the growth of Buddhism.

The new epoch of diplomacy was inaugurated by the ambitions of Kosala. The first king of Kosala known from Pali literature was Mahakosala. Prasenjit was contemporary of Bimbisar and Ajatshatru, the Magadhan kings. The princess of Kosala, Kosaladevi was married to Bimbisar. Taking this advantage of the marital relation, Kosala annexed Kasi and in order to pacify Magadha, gave a village of Kasi although the impression of its being given in dowry. The Magadhan princess was also married to the Kosalan king. Prasenjit also married a Sakyan princess. In this way he thought to enhance his popularity and prestige. In the same way Maharaj Chetaka enhanced his position by marrying his daughters to contemporary rulers of Magadha, Sindhu-Sauvira, Champa(Bhagalpur), Kausambi, and Avanti. Udayana, the king of Vatsa, protected himself from the waxing powers of king Pradyota, the king of Avanti by courting and kidnapping his daughter Vasavadutta.      
  
In ancient period before the birth of Christ viz. 725 to 484 B.C.E., the region of Muzaffarpur  (wherein my native village-Puranankar Balha is situated) and Hajipur together were known as 'Vaishali'. It was here that the first republican government was established in all around the world. The history of the Republican 'Vajjian' confederacy was bright and glorious. There was a central legislature, the total number of whose members was 7707. There was an electorate procedure for conducing the business of the assembly of 'Vajji'. The ‘Vinaya Pitaka’ that the assembly used, first of all, to elect an officer, whose function was to make them sit in order of seniority. Disputes were settled by counting voting tickets known as ‘salakas’, which were distributed to the voters.The key of success of 'Vajji' republic was their “Satta Aparihannidhamma” i.e. seven non-injuring ways of administration.

The Vajji Mahajanpada

The 'Lichhavis' were the most famous clan amongst the ruling confederate clans of the Vajji Mahajanpadas of ancient India and Nepal. Vaishali, the capital of the 'Lichhavis' also became the capital of the 'Vajji Mahajanpada'. It was later occupied by King Ajatshatru, who annexed the Vajji territory into his kingdom. Kautilya in his Arthasastra(Ch.XI) describes the 'Lichhavis' as a tribal confederation(gana sangha), whose leader uses the title of Raja. They have claimed the kshatriya status themselves. According to 'Digha Nikaya', the Lichhavis were of the Vashishta gotra, while in the Manu Smriti they are placed in the category of  'Vratya Kshatriya'. By the time of Mahavira(599 B.C.E.) and Gautam Buddha(563 B.C.E.) this clan was already well settled in the area consisting of present day north Bihar and terai region of Nepal. Buddhist tradition has preserved the names of a number of 'Lichhavis', which include prince Abhaya, Ottaddha(Mahali), generals Siha and Ajita, Dummukha and Sunakhlata. The Kalpasutra of Bhadrabahu-I refers to the nine Lichhavi ganarajas(Chieftains), who along with the nine Malla ganarajas and the eighteen Kasi-Kosala ganarajas formed a league against Magadha. The leader of this alliance was King Chetaka, Whose sister Trishala was the mother of Lord Mahavira.

In 599 B.C.E. Vardhaman Mahavira was born to King Sidhartha and Trishala, the sister of King Chetaka. During the period of Bhagwan Parshvanath, the feudal system prevailed in Bharat. However, the beginning of democratic system had started appearing on the political scene. It was the dawn of localized republics. After his nirvana the republics started expanding and Vaishali emerged as the capital of the federation of small republics. Maharaja Chetak, a staunch follower of the Parshvanath tradition was the President of the Vaishali republic. On the northern shore of the Ganges, a large and powerful group of 'Lichhavi Kshatriyas' favoured democratic system. The six prominant clans that formed this republic were Ugna, Bhog, Rajanya, Ikshawaku, Lichhavi, Jnat and Kaurav. Nine chieftains represented them. Another union was named Malla and it was divided into two parts- north-western and south-eastern. The capital city of north-western was Kushunara(now Kushinagar) and that of south-eastern was Pava(now Pavapuri). The nine chiefs of Malla republics were also staunch supporters of the democratic system. Nine Mallas and nine Lichhavis combined to form a well organised apex union called the Union of Vajji republics. Before the advent of Mahavira and the Buddha, these were famous as the Vidhehas, but later, the name Lichhavi became more popular. Still, as a cultural group they always retained their identity as the Videhas. In the Jain literature Maharaja Chetak has been mentioned as Videhraj, his sister Trishala, as Videhdinna, Mahavira has also been mentioned as Videhsukumal. All this is indicative of the higher religious and cultural status of the state of Videha. King Ajatshatru(Kunik) was the grandson of Maharaja Chetak.