Chapter 3: THE ANCIENT HISTORY OF INDIA

THE ANCIENT HISTORY OF INDIA:

South Asians were hunters who made stone tools during old and middle stone ages from 500000 B.C.E. to 11000 B.C.E. and drew the cave paintings at ‘Bhimbetka’. South Asian farming first began at ‘Mehrgarh’ in Baluchistan, Pakistan. Mehrgarh is situated about 150 miles to the northwest of Mohenjo-Daro at the foot of the Bolan Pass, which links the Indus valley via Quetta and Kandahar with the Iranian plateau. According to the recent archaeological research mentioned in the book "A history of India" by Hermann Kulke and Dietmar Rothermund, the cultivation of grain started around 7000 B.C.E. in southern Asia. In this period increasing rainfall during monsoon helped the civilisation at the Indus valley to cultivate the alluvial lands on a small scale. There they built stone walls which retained the sediments of the annual inundation. Initially the archaeologists mistook these walls for dams built for irrigation, but the holes in these walls showed that they were designed so as to retain soil but not water. Such construction were found near Quetta and Las Bela and also in the Bolan valley, around 50 miles from Mehrgarh. The great cities of Mohenjodaro and Harappa from 3000 B.C.E. to 1500 B.C.E. provide us with much archaeological evidence of a refined, indigenous Indian civilization. There was no Aryan invasion, but there was a migration of a group of nomadic people from Iran and Afghanistan, who called themselves 'Arya' or 'the noble'. The Indo-Aryan culture has developed uniquely within India herself over the last four millennia, but it’s origin lie in the fusion of values and heritage of the 'Arya' and the indigenous people of India.

According to Ms. Saroj Bala, Director of the Delhi Chapter of the Institute of scientific research on Vedas (I-Serve)-

The birth of Lord Rama was at 12.05 hours on 10th January 5114 B.C.E.

Hanumana met Sita in Ashok Vatika on 12th September 5076 B.C.E.

Mahabharat war held from 13th October 3139 B.C.E. at Kurukshetra.

Kali Yuga started from 18th February 3102 B.C.E. 

These dates were calculated by a software 'Planetarium Gold',  purchased from USA, by feeding it the position of  planets as mentioned in the Hindu mythological books, during that period.

"It is a result of 10 years of extensive research work ", said Mr. Peeyush Sandheer, Associate Director, I-Serve. Sandheer added that the references to astronomical dates in Rig Veda, Ramayana and Mahabharata were corroborated by oceanographic geological remote sensing and anthropology.

    
'The Riga Veda' is the oldest text of the Indian language family, it along with three other 'Vedas' and much complementary Vedic literature is a key text of Vedic Hinduism. The Indo-Aryans expanded from the Punjab to the Ganga basin, cut down the forests and created conditions for the vast agricultural infrastructure of north India, that we have today.

In the book "The Indo-Aryan Controversy", edited by Edwin Bryant, Laurie L. Patton, it is mentioned at page 50 , that in 1786 C.E., Sir William Jones, a Calcutta High Court Judge, made a very significant linguistic observation - "The Sanskrit language, whatever be its antiquity, is of wonderful structure, more perfect than the Greek, more copious than the Latin, and more exquisitely refined than either, yet bearing to both of them stronger affinity both in the roots of verbs and in the forms of grammar than could have been produced by accident, so strong indeed, that no philologer could examine them all three, without believing them to have sprung from some common source, which perhaps no longer exits." (Jones 1788:422-3)

Nearly a century later, an eminent Sanskrit scholar, F. Max Muller, said that the Rig Veda was to be dated around 1200 B.C.E., this till date has been agreed by most of the historians world wide.  

1500 B.C.E. to 600 B.C.E. is generally known as the Vedic Age in ancient history of India, out of which, 1200 B.C.E. to 600 B.C.E. is mostly known as the Epic Age. In this period 'Vedas' were compiled and also 'Varna' was classified in terms of 'Aryans' and 'Dasas' (slaves).'Aryans' were classified in three 'Varnas' i.e. 'Brahmins'-the priest, 'Kshatriyas'-the warriors and 'Vaisyas'-the herders, farmers, merchants and crafts people. The non-Aryans were kept in 'Sudra Varna'. Their duty was to serve the upper three varnas as farm workers, servants and labourers.

The Rig Veda mentions the celebrated "battle of ten kings"- Book 7, hymns 18, 33, 83 on the river Parusni (Ravi). The Bharata king Sudasa, son of Devodasa, defeated the Puru king Trasadasyu, s/o Purukutsa. The first Kuru king mentioned in the Rig Veda is Kuru, the son of Samvarna, grandson of Ajamidha a descendent of Trasadasyu. It also mentions by name some thirty Aryan tribes and class. A term "Panch Lokah" meaning 'five peoples' is used throughout the Rig Veda to refer to the major tribes, of which four are regularly paired: Yadu with Turvasa and Ayu with Druhyu. A fifth tribe Puru together with its ally or sub-tribe Bharata, appears to have arrived later, overpowering the earlier tribes. The main dynasty in the Rig-Vedic hymns are Bharata and Puru dynasties of three to five generations.

Bharata: Atithi>Devodasa>Sudasa

Puru: Mandhata>Purukutsa>Trasadasyu>Trksi

The latest Bharata or Puru king mentioned in Books 2 to 7 is Trasadasyu's son Trksi.

From Mahabharat to Mahapadma Nand there were 37 Magadha Kings starting with Jarasandh descendent of King Brihadrath, and King Ripunjaya being the last. Of the several kingdom and dynasties of which 'Purana' have recorded political history, there is the kingdom of Magadha. It is at Magadha, Chandragupta and Ashoka ruled and it is on these names that the modern computation of dates has been based. The kingdom of Magadha was founded by King Brihadrath, son of Uparichara Vasu, the 6th in descent from Kuru of the Lunar dynasty, that happened 161 years before the great Mahabharat war i.e. 3300 B.C.E. Tenth in descent from Brihadrath was Jarasandha, who perished at the hands of Kamsa and in his place Sahadeva was installed on the throne. According to Adi Parva, Mahabharata, Book-I, Chapter-90, Shloka-39-41, Ajamidha had four wives named Kaikeyi, Gandhari, Vimala and Riksha by whom he had 2400 sons. Among them, Samvarna became the ruler of the dynasty. During his rule there happened a great loss of people from famine, pestilence, drought and disease. At the same time Panchala also attacked them. Samvarna then with his wife, ministers and relatives fled in fear and took shelter in the forest on the banks of river Sindhu extending to the foot of mountains. There they lived for around 1000 years. Samvarna begat upon wife Tapti, the daughter of Vaivaswat Manu, a son named Kuru. This Kuru was exceedingly virtuous and devoted to asceticism. He made a field (Kurukshetra) sacred by practicing asceticism there. Even as per Bhagawat Purana, the ancestors of Magadha kings since 4159 B.C.E. is as follows:-

    

01.      Ajamidha (wife-Riksha)
02.      Samvarna
03.      Kuru
04.      Sudhanvan/Parikshit/Prajana/Yaju
05.      Suhotra
06.      Chyavana
07.      Kriti
08.      Uparichara Vasu/Chaidya/Pratipa
09.      Brihadratha 
10.      Kusagra
11.      Vrisabha/Rishabha
12.      Pushpavanta
13.      Satyahita
14.      Satyadhrithi
15.      Sudhanvana II/Dhanusha
16.      Sarva
17.      Sambhava
18.      Jarasandha
19.      Sahadeva
20.      Somapi/Marjari
21.      Shrutashrava    
22.      Ayutayu/Apratipa 
23.      Niramitra 
24.      Sukrutta/Sukshatro 
25.      Brihatkarma 
26.      Syenajit 
27.      Shrutanjaya 
28.      Mahabala/Vibhu 
29.      Suchi  
30.      Kshemya
31.      Aruvrata/Suvrata 
32.      Sunetra/Dharmanetra  
33.      Nirvrutti 
34.      Suvrata 
35.      Dhrudhasena/Mahasena 
36.      Sumati/Mahanetra 
37.      Subala/Suchala
38.      Sunetra 
39.      Satyajit 
40.      Vishvajit/Veerajit 
41.      Ripunjaya

King Ripunjaya was assasinated by his minister Sunika, who installed his son, Pradyota Mahasena on the throne.

The Pradyota Dynasty-(682-544 B.C.E.)-Capital at Vaishali

1. Pradyota Mahasena  -(682-659 BCE)         
2. Balaka                       -(659-635 BCE)
3. Visakhayupa             -(635-585 BCE)
4. Janaka/Ajaka            -(585-564 BCE)
5. Nandivardhana         -(564-544 BCE)

The 'Vedic' polity was consolidated in sixteen 'Mahajanpadas' of which 'Magadha' was the dominant state. Both the Persians and the Greeks invaded north-west India during the later part of this period. Vedic Hinduism was strongly challenged by the religious dissenters such as Ajivakas, Buddhists and Jains, who objected to the caste system, animal sacrifices, Brahman dominance and the Vedas. This all happened in the Vedic Age i.e. 1500 B.C.E. to 600 B.C.E.
The sixteen mahajanapadas as per the Buddhist “Anguttara Nikaya” are-

1.   Anga
2.   Assaka(Asmaka)
3.   Avanti
4.   Chedi
5.   Gandhara
6.   Kashi
7.   Kamboja
8.   Kosala
9.   Kuru
10.   Magadha
11.   Malla
12.   Machcha(Matsya)
13.   Panchala
14.   Sursena
15.   Vriji
16.   Vatsa(Vamsa)

The sixteen mahajanapadas as per the Jain sutra “Vyabhyaprajnapti” are-

1.   Anga
2.   Banga(Vanga)
3.   Magadha
4.   Malaya
5.   Malavaka
6.   Achha
7.   Kochcha
8.   Padha
9.   Vaccha
10.   Ladha(Lata)
11.   Bajji(Vajji)
12.   Moli(Malla)
13.   Kasi
14.   Kosala
15.   Avaha
16.   Sambhuttara
    

The Haryanka Dynasty-(544-413 B.C.E.)-Capital at Rajagriha and Pataliputra. It was king Udayin, who built the city of Kusuma (Pataliputra) on the banks of the Ganges river.

1. Bimbisar                    -(544-492 BCE)
2. Ajatshatru                  -(492-460 BCE)
3. Udayin                       -(460-444 BCE)
4. Anuruddha                 -(444-440 BCE)  
5. Munda                        -(440-437 BCE)
6. Nagadasaka                -(437-413 BCE)

The Shaishunag Dynasty-(413-345 B.C.E.)-Capital at Rajagriha, Vaishali & Pataliputra

1. Shishunag                     -(413-395 BCE)
2. Kalashoka                     -(395-367 BCE)
3. Nandivardhana             -(367-355 BCE)    
4. Mahanandin                  -(355-345 BCE)

       
The Nanda Dynasty (345- 324 B.C.E.)-Capital at Pataliputra 

Mahapadma Nanda, who has been described in the Puranas as “The destroyer of all the kshatriyas”, defeated many other kingdoms, including the Panchalas, Kasi, Haihayas, Kalinga, Asmakas, Kurus, Maithils, Surasena and the Vitihotras; to name a few. He expanded his territory south of the Vindhya range into the Deccan plateau. He was the illegitimate son of Mahanandin, a Kshatriya king of the Shishunag dynasty and a Shudra mother. The Hathigumpha inscription of Kharvela, mentions a king named Nanda, building a canal and conquering an area, the existence of an area called Nau Nand Dehra  (present day Nanded) on the Godavari river is taken by some scholars as reflecting Nanda rule over the Deccan. The Nanda dynasty was also mentioned in the ancient Sangam literature of Tamilnadu. The famous tamil poet Mamulanar of the Sangam literature described the capital city of Pataliputra of the Nanda dynasty and the wealth and treasure that was accumulated by the great Nanda rulers. Their unpopularity possibly due to their financial extortion facilitated a revolution leading to their overthrow by Chandragupta Maurya & Kautilya.

The Mahabodhivamsa lists the following nine kings of the Nanda dynasty-
       
1.    Mahapadma Nanda (Ugrasena)
2.    Panduka
3.    Pandugati
4.    Bhutapala
5.    Rashtrapala
6.    Govishanaka
7.    Dashasiddhaka
8.    Kaivrata
9.    Dhanananda (Agrammes)

Chandragupta Maurya, with the guidance of Chanakya, defeated Dhananand and controlled the entire north India, which King Bindusar further extended it. After fighting the Kalinga war, Ashoka embraced Buddhism. Chandragupta Maurya was the founder of Maurya empire and the first emperor to unify most of Greater India into one state. The Mauryan kings were-

The Maurya Dynasty (324-180 B.C.E.)-Capital at Pataliputra


1.    Chandragupta       -(324-297 BCE).
2.    Bindusara             -(297-273 BCE)
3.    Ashoka                 -(273-232 BCE)
4.    Dasharatha           -(232-224 BCE)
5.    Samprati               -(224-215 BCE)
6.    Shalishuka            -(215-202 BCE)
7.    Devavarman         -(202-195 BCE)
8.    Shatadhanvan       -(195-187 BCE)
9.    Brihadratha           -(187-180 BCE)

Once the major ruler of Mauryan empire Samrat Ashoka died , the kingdom disintegrated into small independent kingdoms. Yavanas (Indo-Greeks) captured the north-west frontier. The peninsula was captured by Satavahanas. During the last two years of Mauryan dynasty , king Brihadratha faced a number of rebellions. The north-western province of the kingdom were captured by the yavanas. This was a major cause of resentment in the army of Mauryans. As a result the Mauryan commander-in-chief , Pushyamitra Shunga , assassinated King Brihadratha , while he was taking the guard of honor of his forces and claimed the throne.

The Shunga Dynasty (180 to 73 B.C.E.)-Capital at Pataliputra and Vidisha

Pushyamitra Shunga waged a few wars to strengthen his position. He defeated yavanas to recapture Punjab. He also defeated Kharvela of Kalinga. Pushyamitra’s son Agnimitra further expanded the kingdom waging constant wars in Vidarbha. Agnimitra was also portrayed as a courageous heroic king by Kalidasa. Pushyamitra was a Brahmin by caste and so he hated Buddhism and wanted to bring in the old Vedic culture. He ordered to kill 84000 Buddhists in one day. He also destroyed thousands of monasteries and stupa all over India. Shunga’s were instrumental in reinforcing Vedic culture in India. It is claimed by some historians that Manu Smriti was either written or compiled by Bhrigu during 180-149 B.C.E. , though historian A.L.Vasan says that it was written in between 300 to 200 B.C.E.. Patanjali’s yoga sutra was also written during his rule. The last ruler of Shunga empire was Devabhuti. It is said that he was least interested in ruling the kingdom and more fond of the company of women.

 

01.    Pushyamitra Shunga -(180-151 BCE)
02.    Agnimitra Shunga      -(151-141 BCE)

03.    Sujestha Shunga         -(141-132 BCE)

04.    Vasumitra Shunga      -(132-124 BCE)

05.    Udanka Shunga          -(124-116 BCE)

06.    Pulindak Shunga        -(116-107 BCE)

07.    Yopvasu Shunga         -(107- 99 BCE)

08.    Vajramitra Shunga      -(  99- 91 BCE)

09.    Bhagwat Shunga         -(  91- 83 BCE)     
10.    Devabhuti Shunga      -(  83-73 BCE)

King Devabhuti Shunga was assassinated by Vasudeva Kanva, the Brahmin minister, in 73 B.C.E. and Kanva dynasty was established.

The Kanva Dynasty (73-30 B.C.E.)-Capital at Pataliputra and Vidisha
 
1.    Vasudeva     -(73-66 BCE)    
2.    Bhumimitra -(66-52 BCE)
3.    Narayan       -(52-40 BCE)
4.    Susarma       -(40-30 BCE)

30 B.C.E. to 320 C.E.- the period saw the invasions of Bactrians , Parthians , Shakas and Kushans. King Susarma of Kanva dynasty was killed by his commander-in-chief Simhaka Satkarni/ Balipuchhak, who established the Satvahana dynasty. He was followed by Krsna-Srimalla-Poornotsang-Srisatkarni-Skandstambhin-Lambodar-Apilaka-Meghswati-Swati-Skandsatkarni-Mrigendra-Kuntala-Saumya-Swatikarni-Puloman-Magha-Arista-Hala-Mundalaka-Pulindsena-Cakora-Mahendra-Sivswati-Gautamiputra-Puloman II-Sivasri-Sivaskanda-Yagnasri-Vijayasri-Candasri-Puloman III. The Satvahana dynasty kings ruled for around 350 years, mostly around the Deccan plateau, due to the regular invasions from north and north-east. By the beginning of the second century C.E. the Greek power reached river Yamuna. A hundred years later the Scythians of Seistan (Sakasthana) occupied the delta of river Indus (Sindhu) i.e. Sakadvipa. The history of North-West India during one century before and after Christ is of great interest for many reasons. Greeks, Partho-Scythians and Yue-Chi(Kushan) entered India. They founded colonies and established states, some of which were long-lived, e.g. the empire of the Satraps of Ujjain, lasted till the fourth century C.E. At one time the Greek condottiere advanced as far as the river Ganges and possibly up to Pataliputra. Out of the mingling of the Greeks and Hindus was born the Greeco-Buddhist art of Gandhara whose influence radiated on all sides reaching Amravati and even central Asia, Indonesia and Indo-China beyond the seas. 

320 C.E. to 550 C.E.-The Gupta dynasty was enlarged and efficiently ruled by Chandragupta-I. Shakuntalam (Kalidas) and Kamsutra (Vatsyayana) were written during this period , when even Aryabhatta achieved feats in Astronomy(520 C.E. to 606 C.E.)-During this period Hunas moved to India. This was an age of small kingdoms and the north was divided into warring factions. Only during 606 C.E. to 647 C.E., King Harshavardhan  controlled most of them and ruled the entire area majestically. During his reign Hieun Tsang , the Chinese traveler and writer , visited India. After the death of Harshavardhana his kingdom again disintegrated into small states , even as Hunas invaded. 

The Gupta Dynasty (320 C.E.-550 C.E.)-Capital at Pataliputra

01.  Shrigupta
02.  Ghatotkacha
03.  Chandragupta I
04.  Samudragupta
05.  Ramagupta
06.  Chandragupta II (Vikramaditya I)
07.  Kumaragupta I
08.  Skandagupta
09.  Purugupta
10.  Kumaragupta II
11.  Buddhagupta
12.  Narsimhagupta
13.  Bhanugupta
14.  Vainyagupta
15.  Kumaragupta III
16.  Vishnugupta

In 1928 AD, a copperplate was found at Gunaighar, a village about 18 miles to the north-west of the town of Comilla, Bangladesh. The translation says-" The glorious Maharaja Vainyagupta issues a command. In the current year of One Hundred Eighty Eight on the 24th day of the month of Pausa, Gupta era, i.e. around 510 AD, by the royal ambassador, the great frontier king Maharaja Vijayasena. This is written by Karna-Kayastha Naradatta, who is the minister in charge of Peace and War." 

The Vardhana Dynasty (550 C.E.-647 C.E.)-Capital at Kannauj

1.    Naravardhana
2.    Rajyavardhana
3.    Adityavardhana
4.    Prabhakaravardhana
5.    Rajyavardhana
6.    Harshavardhana

The Nidhanpur (a village in Panchakhanda Pargana of Sylhet district) copper plates found in 1912 AD, gives the genealogy of the Kamarupa (Pragyajyotisha) kings.

01.   Naraka

02.   Bhagadatta

03.   Vajradatta(Unnamed kings of the dynasty who ruled for about 3000 years).

04.   Pushya Varmma

05.   Samudra Varmma (wife-Dattadevi)

06.   Bala Varmma (wife-Ratnavati)

07.   Kalyan Varmma (wife-Gandharvavati)

08.   Ganapati Varmma (wife-Yajnavati)

09.   Mahendra Varmma (wife-Suvrata)

10.   Narayan Varmma (wife-Devavati)

11.   Mahabhuti Varmma (wife-Vijnanavati)

12.   Chandramukh Varmma (wife-Bhogavati)

13.   Sthita Varmma (wife-Nayanadevi)

14.   Sisthita Varmma (wife-Shyamadevi)

15.   Supratishthita Varmma

16.   Bhaskar Varmma (He was contemporary to King Harshavardhan)   


The later Gupta Dynasty (600 C.E.-750 C.E.)-Capital at Magadh

1.    Damodaragupta
2.    Mahasenagupta
3.    Madhavagupta
4.    Adityasena
5.    Devagupta

The Pala Dynasty (750 C.E.-1077 C.E.)-Capital at Karnasuvarna

01.  Gopala I
02.  Dharmapala
03.  Devapala
04.  Mahendrapala
05.  Surapala I
06.  Vigrahapala I
07.  Narayanpala
08.  Rajyapala
09.  Gopala II
10.  Vigrahapala II
11.  Mahipala I
12.  Nyayapala
13.  Vigrahapala III
14.  Mahipala II
15.  Surapala II
16.  Ramapala

The Kamauli grant of Vaidyadeva(1126-1140 AD), found at Varanasi records the victory of Mayana, the General of Gauda ruler Ramapala. The Assam plates of Vallabhadeva(1180-1200 AD), give the names of the three rulers, who were the successor of King Vaidyadeva.

The Sena Dynasty (1070 C.E.-1230 C.E.)-Capital at Gauda, Bikrampur, Nabadwip, Lakhnauti

1.    Samanta Sena
2.    Hemanta Sena
3.    Vijaya Sena
4.    Ballal Sena
5.    Lakshman Sena
6.    Keshava Sena
7.    Vishvarupa Sena

The Karnat Dynasty (1097 C.E.-1325 C.E.)-Capital at Simaraongarh (presently Birganj,Nepal)

1.    Nanyadeva
2.    Gangadeva

3.    Narsinghdeva

4.    Ramsinghdeva

5.    Shaktisinghdeva

6.    Bhupalsinghdeva

7.    Harisinghdeva  

Chapter 2: EVOLUTION OF HUMAN RACE:

EVOLUTION OF HUMAN RACE:

As per the Vedas, time is divided into four ages. Krita(Sata) Yuga, Treta Yuga, Dwapar Yuga and Kali Yuga-collectively forming one 'Maha Yuga'. Seventy one 'Maha Yugas' form a 'Manvantara', a period of time over which a ‘Manu’ resides. In each cycle this ‘Manu’ is the first man and also the first king and the lawgiver. Every 'Manavantara' has its own set of Indra, Gods and seven Sages. Fourteen 'Manavantara' create a Kalpa(aeon), after which the creation comes to a close, which is called ‘Pralaya’. After that the creation starts all over again in an endless cycle of evolutions and dissolutions. The tradition relate that the present ‘Kalpa' is called ‘Varaha’. Out of the fourteen 'Manavantaras' of this ‘Kalpa’, six have passed. The current Manavantara is called ‘Vaivasvata’ after the ‘Manu’, who preside over it. It is to Vaivasvata Manu that the royal genealogies trace their origin. It was in the Caksusa Manavantara, which immediately preceded the present Manavantara , that King Prithu , the great grandson of Caksusa Manu , leveled the earth , built cities and villages and developed agriculture , trade , pasture and cattle breeding. This cycle ended after only eight or more generations with the great flood.

The great flood at the end of the Caksusa Manavantara wipes away all life forms. Only Vaivasvata Manu is saved by Lord Vishnu in the avatar of a fish(Matsya) to re-populate the earth in the next cycle. All royal lines in our cycle are traced from Vaivasvata Manu’s sons and his only daughter Ila. This daughter produced by means of a ritual, later becomes his wife.

In the Padma Purana, Shrishti Khand, Page-7, the calculation for the evolution of life on the earth is as follows:-

The period of Satyuga is          - 4800 Divya years X 360 = 17,28,000 years
The period of Tretayuga is       - 3600 Divya years X 360 = 12,96,000 years
The period of Dwaparyuga is   - 2400 Divya years X 360 =  8,64,000 years
The period of Kaliyuga is         - 1200 Divya years X 360 =  4,32,000 years

So in one Mahayuga(All four yugas +) there will be         = 43,20,000 years

Calculation of the present Samvat year-

Total number of years in six Manavantara     -  1,84,03,20,000 years

27 Chaturyugi in the seventh Manavantara    -     11,66,40,000 years

3 Yugas in the 28th Chaturyugi                        -          38,88,000 years

The passed years in the Kali yuga                    -                 5,121 years

                                                                               -----------------------------

The present Samvat year                                   -  1,96,08,53,121th year

                                                                                -----------------------------

Now we look into the global thought, then as per "Outline of History" by H. G. Wells 2.2, how old is the world- "Estimates of the age of the oldest rocks by geologists and astronomers starting from different stand points have varied between 160,000,000 to 250,000,000 years."

Again, in "The evolution of the earth" by Prof. H. F. Osborn, he developed his own evolutionary theory of human origin, called the "Dawn Man Theory". His theory was founded on the discovery of Piltdown Man (Eonthropus), which was dated to the late (Upper) Pliocene. Eonthropus or "Dawn Man", Osborn maintained sprang from a common ancestor with the ape during the Oligocene period which he believed developed entirely during the Miocene (16 million years ago) . Therefore, Osborn argued that all apes (Simia, following the pre-Darwinian classification of Linnaeus) had evolved entirely parallel to the ancestors of man(Homo).

The story of incarnation of Vishnu as fish (Matsyavatar) is seen in the Bible figuratively. In the order of the generation of Adam, the first creation of God, Seth, Enos, Kainan, Mahalil, Jared, Enoch, Methuselah, Lamech, and Noah were born. When Noah was five hundred years old, he begot Sham, Ham, and Japheth. As per Bible, there was a great flood during the time of Noah. God said to him: The end of all flesh is come before one; for the earth is filled with violence through them, and behold. I will destroy them with the earth. Make thee an ark of gopher wood; rooms shault thou make in the ark and shalt paint it within and without with pitch. And this is the fashion which thou shalt make it of. The length of the ark should be three hundred cubits. A window shalt thou make to the ark and in a cubit shall thou finish it above and the door of the ark shalt thou set in the side there of, with lower second and third stories shalt thou make it. And behold, I ever I, do bring a flood of water up on the earth.

The ancient period of human technological development along with creation and use of rudimentary chipped stone tools is called the Paleolithic Period. It was also characterized by the produce of small sculptures, clay figurines of animals and paintings on cave walls. Researchers excavating a dry river bed near Kenya's Lake Turkana discovered primitive stone tools embedded in rocks dating to 3.3 million years ago. That is around middle of the Pliocene Epoch (some 5.3 million to 2.5 million years ago). Those tools predate the oldest confirmed specimen of Homo by almost One Million years. The earliest period of human history is known as the Stone Age. The Stone Age era is broken down into two parts: The Paleolithic Period or old stone age from about 2.5 million years ago to about 10,000 years ago, and Neolithic Period or new stone age from about 10,000 years to about 5,000 years ago.

Paleolithic humans were generally nomadic and were hunter-gatherers. They usually lived in sparsely wooded areas and dispersed through areas of high primary production, while avoiding dense forest cover. Around 60,000 years ago they spread rapidly from the African continent to the frost-free zones of Asia and Europe. By the end of the ice age, i.e. around 12,000 years ago, humans had colonized nearly all the ice-free parts of the earth. Again by 10,000 B.C.E., the Neolithic Period marked the system of agriculture, cultivation of cereal crop, and animal domestication. The Yangtze valley started growing rice by at least 8,000 B.C.E., In the Indus valley crops were cultivated and cattle were domesticated around 7,000 B.C.E. The Yellow river valley in China also cultivated millet and other cereal crops by same around 7,000 B.C.E. The development of cities first took place in lower Mesopotamia (3000 B.C.E.), Egyptian civilization along the Nile river (3000 B.C.E.), Harappan civilization along the Indus river (2500 B.C.E.), and the Chinese civilization along the Yellow and Yangtze rivers (2200 B.C.E.).  

The Mleiha Archaeological Center, Sharjah, U.A.E., is constructed around a 4500 year old Umm Al Nar era tomb. However, archaeological evidence has been found around Mleiha dating as far back as the Paleolithic period, about 1,30,000 years ago. This is not long after the first waves of modern humans began migrating north from African continent. Recently in February, 2021, the researchers at Mleiha happened upon a pottery jar containing 409 silver coins. Out of these 387 coins were single sided mold coins, while 22 were double-sided mold coins. According to a report in Archaeology News Network the earliest coins depict the head of Hercules represented by Alexander the great and the God Zeus sitting on his throne. Further more, "Alexander" is engraved in Greek script, but on the later coins it is replaced with the name "Abel" written in Aramaic.        

Now we will have to take a brief look on the evolution of human race as per our mythology and belief: It is mentioned in Chapter-I of the Vishnu Purana that Brahma created Daksha out of his thumb. Daksha had a daughter Aditi, who was the mother of Sun. From the Sun was born Manu. Since the Sun-god was Manu’s father, his lineage came to be known as the ‘Suryavansha’. Manu had many sons, of whom 50 perished quarreling  with each other, the remaining ten were-(1) Ikshwakku, (2) Nriga, (3) Dhristha, (4) Saryati, (5) Narishyanta, (6) Pransu, (7) Nabhaga, (8) Navnedistha, (9) Karusha, and (10)Prishadhra.


The Brahma Purana(Chapter 7&8) mentions that Ikshwakku fathered 101 children of whom most illustrious were Vikukshi, Nimi and Danda. Nimi was the ruler of Mithila region, which spread from the foothills of Himalaya upto the river Ganga. Vikukshi, after eating hare-meat meant for a rite, was called Sasada. Sasada had 500 sons, who guarded northern region led by Shakuni and 58 sons out of them who guarded southern region led by Visati.

The Brahma Purana mentions that Kakustha was the son of Sasada, whose son was Anranya. From Anranya, the lineage descent until Raghu. Aja was the son of Raghu and father of Dasharatha. Rama was the son of Dasharatha. They ruled from Ayodhya.

As on date, apart from the Bhimbetka caves, the oldest neolithic site (7000 B.C.E.) was found in 1979 at Mehrgarh in Dhadar district of Pakistan, 10 kms south of Bolan Pass. A copper bead found in a grave dating to 5000 B.C.E. is one of the first metal objects found in this region. Kindly note that as per Ramayana, when Hanumana met Sita in Ashok Vatika, she gave him a ring to be given to Rama as a memory.

Roughly around 2500 B.C.E. two of these neolithic sites were destroyed by fire and new cities were developed on the ashes of the old. The first one Mohenjo-Daro (Mound of the dead), and the second Harappa were built. At the zenith, the Indus Valley Civilisation incorporated an area larger than the north Ezypt, streching almost 1000 kms north to south. After 1900 B.C.E., this civilisation began to decline due to the drying up of the main river Saraswati (Ghaggar-Hakra), which finally disappeared.

By about 1700 B.C.E. the Indus Valley Civilisation divided into regional cultures called post Harappan culture. The Aryans started migrating to the alluvial plains of river Ganga and Jamuna. During the Vedic age (around 700 B.C.E.), we have the description of sixteen Mahajanapadas in all the Vedic, Buddhist and Jain relics.

Around 600 B.C.E., several philosophers around the world advanced ideas that changed views of life and religion on the earth-

Zoroaster                 - 628-551 B.C.E. in Iran

Gautam Buddha       -623-543 B.C.E. in India

Mahaveera               -599-527 B.C.E. in India

Pythagorus               -570-500 B.C.E. in Greece

Confucius & Laozi    -551-479 B.C.E. in China

The Indus valley civilization(Mohanjodaro and Harappa), which flourished in the north-western part of the Indian sub-continent from 3300 to 1300 B.C.E. was the first major civilization in south Asia. This civilization collapsed at the start of the second millennium B.C.E. and was later followed by the 'Vedic' civilization, which extended over much of the Indo-Gangetic plain and which witnessed the rise of major polities known as the 'Mahajanpadas'. From 600 B.C.E. onwards in 'Magadha Mahajanpada', Mahavira and Gautam Buddha propogated their 'Shramanic' philosophies.


The 'Vajjians' included nine confederated clans of whom the Licchavis, the Videhans, the Jnatrikas and the Vajjis were the most important. Mithila(modern Janakpur) was the capital of 'Videha'. The last 'Janak' of Mithila, Kirti Janak(King Kalara), who is said to have perished along with  his kingdom on account of his attempt on a Brahmin maiden’s molestation. On the reins of his kingdom, arose the republics of the 'Licchavis' and 'Videhans' and seven other small confederations. The 'Licchavis' were a very independent people. The mother of Mahavira was a Licchavi's princess-Trishala, who was the sister of Maharaj Chetaka, who later on became the president of the 'Vajji Mahajanpada'. The 'Licchavis' were followers of Buddha, and they also ruled Nepal at the start of middle ages. 'Licchavis' are represented as 'Vratya Kshatriyas' in 'Manu Smriti'.

Sixth century B.C.E. is very important in political, socio-religious and economical history of ancient India. During this period the second phase of urbanization leading to the emergence of the cities like, Kausambi, Varanasi, Pataliputra, Sravasti, and Vaishali. The areas of eastern U.P., Bihar, and Nepal Tarai became the center of this transformation. Matrimonial relations in the sixth century B.C.E. played an important role in the growth of religions and rise of political power. The mother of Mahavira, Trisala was the sister of Maharaja Chetaka, the president of the Vajji Mahajanpada. The king Bimbisar of Magadha was married to Chellana, the daughter of Maharaja Chetaka. Three other daughters of  him were married in different royal families. Prabhavati was married to king Udayana of Sindhu-Sauvira, Padmavati was married to king Dadhivahana of Champa, and Mrigavati was married to king Pradyota of Avanti. Thus Vardhamana(Mahavira) was well connected from maternal side.The mother of Lord Buddha, Mayadevi, was the princess of the Koliyas. In this way Buddha was connected with contemporary ruling clan. It is evident that this relationship with Sakyas and Koliyas proved fruitful in the growth of Buddhism.

The new epoch of diplomacy was inaugurated by the ambitions of Kosala. The first king of Kosala known from Pali literature was Mahakosala. Prasenjit was contemporary of Bimbisar and Ajatshatru, the Magadhan kings. The princess of Kosala, Kosaladevi was married to Bimbisar. Taking this advantage of the marital relation, Kosala annexed Kasi and in order to pacify Magadha, gave a village of Kasi although the impression of its being given in dowry. The Magadhan princess was also married to the Kosalan king. Prasenjit also married a Sakyan princess. In this way he thought to enhance his popularity and prestige. In the same way Maharaj Chetaka enhanced his position by marrying his daughters to contemporary rulers of Magadha, Sindhu-Sauvira, Champa(Bhagalpur), Kausambi, and Avanti. Udayana, the king of Vatsa, protected himself from the waxing powers of king Pradyota, the king of Avanti by courting and kidnapping his daughter Vasavadutta.      
  
In ancient period before the birth of Christ viz. 725 to 484 B.C.E., the region of Muzaffarpur  (wherein my native village-Puranankar Balha is situated) and Hajipur together were known as 'Vaishali'. It was here that the first republican government was established in all around the world. The history of the Republican 'Vajjian' confederacy was bright and glorious. There was a central legislature, the total number of whose members was 7707. There was an electorate procedure for conducing the business of the assembly of 'Vajji'. The ‘Vinaya Pitaka’ that the assembly used, first of all, to elect an officer, whose function was to make them sit in order of seniority. Disputes were settled by counting voting tickets known as ‘salakas’, which were distributed to the voters.The key of success of 'Vajji' republic was their “Satta Aparihannidhamma” i.e. seven non-injuring ways of administration.

The Vajji Mahajanpada

The 'Lichhavis' were the most famous clan amongst the ruling confederate clans of the Vajji Mahajanpadas of ancient India and Nepal. Vaishali, the capital of the 'Lichhavis' also became the capital of the 'Vajji Mahajanpada'. It was later occupied by King Ajatshatru, who annexed the Vajji territory into his kingdom. Kautilya in his Arthasastra(Ch.XI) describes the 'Lichhavis' as a tribal confederation(gana sangha), whose leader uses the title of Raja. They have claimed the kshatriya status themselves. According to 'Digha Nikaya', the Lichhavis were of the Vashishta gotra, while in the Manu Smriti they are placed in the category of  'Vratya Kshatriya'. By the time of Mahavira(599 B.C.E.) and Gautam Buddha(563 B.C.E.) this clan was already well settled in the area consisting of present day north Bihar and terai region of Nepal. Buddhist tradition has preserved the names of a number of 'Lichhavis', which include prince Abhaya, Ottaddha(Mahali), generals Siha and Ajita, Dummukha and Sunakhlata. The Kalpasutra of Bhadrabahu-I refers to the nine Lichhavi ganarajas(Chieftains), who along with the nine Malla ganarajas and the eighteen Kasi-Kosala ganarajas formed a league against Magadha. The leader of this alliance was King Chetaka, Whose sister Trishala was the mother of Lord Mahavira.

In 599 B.C.E. Vardhaman Mahavira was born to King Sidhartha and Trishala, the sister of King Chetaka. During the period of Bhagwan Parshvanath, the feudal system prevailed in Bharat. However, the beginning of democratic system had started appearing on the political scene. It was the dawn of localized republics. After his nirvana the republics started expanding and Vaishali emerged as the capital of the federation of small republics. Maharaja Chetak, a staunch follower of the Parshvanath tradition was the President of the Vaishali republic. On the northern shore of the Ganges, a large and powerful group of 'Lichhavi Kshatriyas' favoured democratic system. The six prominant clans that formed this republic were Ugna, Bhog, Rajanya, Ikshawaku, Lichhavi, Jnat and Kaurav. Nine chieftains represented them. Another union was named Malla and it was divided into two parts- north-western and south-eastern. The capital city of north-western was Kushunara(now Kushinagar) and that of south-eastern was Pava(now Pavapuri). The nine chiefs of Malla republics were also staunch supporters of the democratic system. Nine Mallas and nine Lichhavis combined to form a well organised apex union called the Union of Vajji republics. Before the advent of Mahavira and the Buddha, these were famous as the Vidhehas, but later, the name Lichhavi became more popular. Still, as a cultural group they always retained their identity as the Videhas. In the Jain literature Maharaja Chetak has been mentioned as Videhraj, his sister Trishala, as Videhdinna, Mahavira has also been mentioned as Videhsukumal. All this is indicative of the higher religious and cultural status of the state of Videha. King Ajatshatru(Kunik) was the grandson of Maharaja Chetak.